Instructional Design & Technology
Mary Bonanno
Portfolio
MICROMASTERS PROGRAM
University of Maryland
Global Campus
BEHAVIORISM
Behaviorist theory was introduced in the early 20th century by psychologist J.B. Watson, who expanded on Ivan Pavlov’s classical conditioning, or stimulus-response reaction. Watson proposed that psychology be based on objective, observable behavior instead of subjective thoughts or consciousness, and that experience and environment mold an individual, not inherent traits or motivations.
In the 1960s and 1970s, psychologist B.F. Skinner popularized Behaviorism and was considered the father of Operant Conditioning, a concept which maintains that learning occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior when an association is made between behavior and consequence. Skinner introduced the concept of Reinforcement, or the idea that behavior which is reinforced tends to be repeated and strengthened; behavior which is not reinforced tends to be weakened.
Behaviorist theory maintains that humans are no different from Pavlov’s dogs. Actions are a response to either pleasurable stimuli which produce positive consequences, or to unenjoyable stimuli which result in negative consequences.
As a learning theory, behaviorism is based on the premise that learners are passive receivers of information. Learning takes place when a desired behavior is achieved by providing the appropriate stimulation. Positive reinforcement is used to promote a desired behavior or response with the goal of repetition of the behavior through rewards. Negative consequences are used to decrease the likelihood of repeating an undesired behavior or response through “punishment.”
Behaviorism assumes that knowledge is objective and does not change. Objectivism is the key in determining if behaviorism is the appropriate method to apply in a learning scenario. As a teaching method, behaviorism is successful when used in a learning scenario that requires only one right answer as the outcome, such as basic facts, numbers or rote information through repetition, memorization, and question and answer. Grading and praise can be used as motivators that result in operant conditioning. Teaching methods other than behaviorism are more compatible with learning scenarios that require complex, analytical skills.
Learning scenario: Behaviorism
A software consulting firm has developed a series of three asynchronous training courses for employees to demonstrate their ability to create a SQL database for future clients. Each course must be completed in two weeks with a passing grade of B or above. Successful completion of the series would make the employees eligible for a promotion with a 10% pay increase.
Course 1: SQL Basics
Course 2: Applying Methods to a Relational Database
​Course 3: Building a Client Database System
​Each course is comprised of increasingly difficult skill sets to master based on the learning principles that differ from each course and builds upon the previous.
​Course 1 is based on Behaviorism as the learning method. Each exercise requires only one right answer as the outcome such as basic database components, SQL code, and other rote information through memorization, repetition, drill tasks and question and answer. This course is considered the platform that supports the next two. Learning is based on a behaviorist approach and is reinforced through memorization, repetition, drill tasks and question and answer. Feedback and response measurement are also incorporated into each course segment for self-evaluation. The following two courses build on the skill set learned in the preceding course and require more complex, analytical skills.
​Course 1 Stimulus:
Memorization, repetition, drill tasks, and question and answer.
Response:
Feedback and self-measurement of each skill set.
Positive and Negative Reinforcement
Positive and negative reinforcement both come from feedback and self-measurement within each course. They provide the opportunity to self-correct and reinforce the knowledge and skills that are learned.
Pros:
Learner links a specific stimulus to a specific response
Learner associates specific procedures with predetermined steps to follow
Learner controls the pace of learning
Cons:
Learners are directed to preestablished outcomes
Knowledge is objective; limitations of learning beyond one specific answer or approach
​References
Arshavskiy, Marina. n.d. 4 Ways to Apply Behaviorism Principles to Your ELearning Materials.
https://yourelearningworld.com/how-to-apply-behaviorism-principles-to-elearning
Keramida, Marisa (M.Ed.). (2015). Behaviorism In Instructional Design For eLearning: When And How to Use It.
https://elearningindustry.com/behaviorism-in-instructional-design-for-elearning-when-and-how-to-use
Pappas, Christopher. (2015). 6 Tips for Creating Engaging Asynchronous Online Training Courses.
https://elearningindustry.com/6-tips-for-creating-engaging-asynchronous-online-training-courses
Constructivism/Social constructivism
Unlike Behaviorism, where students are passive recipients of knowledge, Constructivism maintains that students must be active participants in the construction of their own learning. Knowledge is constructed by experience and learning takes place when connections are made to a student’s prior knowledge. Behaviorists view the motivation to learn as extrinsic, or a reaction to positive or negative reinforcements. Social constructivists see motivation as both extrinsic and intrinsic in that learners are motivated by rewards from a social community and by their own internal drive to learn.
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Psychologist Jean Piaget, who developed the learning theory of Cognitivism, maintained that certain underlying cognitive patterns which correspond to stages of child development must precede learning. Piaget saw knowledge derived from these stages as key to build upon to form new ideas.
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Social Constructivism is a type of cognitive constructivism that emphasizes collaborative learning and requires social interaction or collaboration between student and teacher or peer. Social constructivism was developed by Soviet cognitivist psychologist Lev Vygotsky who believed that all cognitive functions originate in, and are products of, social interaction and emphasized the role of language and culture in cognitive development. Vygotsky rejected Piaget's assumption that universal stages of child development must precede learning and asserted that learning is derived from collaborative social interaction.
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Vygotsky developed the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), or level of potential development, which he defines as the difference between the problem-solving level of a learner without assistance and the potential that can be achieved with the guidance of teachers or in collaboration with peers. He maintained that when appropriate assistance is provided to the learner, it would boost, or enable her or him to achieve a task that she or he could not accomplish without additional help.
To support the student within the (ZPD), Vygotsky uses the concept of Scaffolding. Although he never used the term in his writings, it has become synonymous with the ZDP. Vygotsky calls this the More Knowledgeable Other (MKO), a teacher or peer who has a higher comprehension or ability in a particular task or concept. The MKO can be an individual or a knowledge community. Support is withdrawn as it becomes unnecessary or when the student is able to perform a task alone.
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Constructivist Jerome Bruner was first to use the term scaffolding in his writings and described it as the assistance provided by others to help a child develop skills. Unlike Vygotsky, Bruner sought to reduce the degree of freedom learners have in carrying out tasks so that they can concentrate on the difficult skills they are learning.
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Seymore Papert developed the theory of Constructionism, which differs from constructivism in that knowledge is built by the learner, not by the teacher.
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Collaboration is the key component of social constructivism. Students work together to solve problems and find answers, leading them to develop their own unique knowledge when working in a collaborative environment. Learners are motivated by rewards from the knowledge community or by their own internal drive to understand and promote the learning process.
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In the classroom, collaborative learning, or reciprocal teaching, shifts the focus from teacher to student, who are encouraged to be actively involved in their own learning process and accept responsibility for their own learning. Students are required to develop teamwork skills that are related to the success of the learning group by engaging in problem-solving processes of questioning, summarizing, clarifying, and predicting.
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Learning scenario: Constructivism
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Course 2: Applying Methods to a Relational Database
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The second course in this series is based on Social Constructivism as the learning method and builds upon the basic understanding of the SQL basics presented through a Behavioral learning method in Course 1. It introduces a More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) in the form of an electronic performance support system as a tutor. The MKO facilitates and guides students through the learning process and is programmed to be more knowledgeable about applying database construction methods using Microsoft’s cloud-based Azure SQL Database program. The program includes a built-in intelligence (the MKO) which learns patterns and applies them to a proprietary system, in this case, the asynchronous online training course. The course is based on social constructionist Lev Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) and is supported by both scaffolding and social constructivist strategies through collaboration with classmates from satellite offices enrolled in the same program. Students engage in discussion through a collaborative section in the training program to ask questions and learn from classmates. Access to inquiry- and discovery-based sites are also provided through the section. The MKO encourages student interaction through discussion segments. The role of the MKO is gradually withdrawn from interaction as students collaborate to construct a sample database together.
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Zone of Proximal Development Skills:
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The ZPD builds upon the central core, the student’s knowledge of the basic database components from the first course. The ZPD represents the skills that students can learn through the course’s database program with the assistance from the MKO and later from their classmates. The surrounding layer represents the skills that are beyond the students’ knowledge, which are addressed and supported by fellow classmates.
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Scaffolding Strategy:
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Jerome Bruner’s scaffolding theory is the strategy used with guidance from the MKO that supports the ZDP. As student knowledge increases, the guidance of the MKO decreases to where students learn enough to master the course material themselves. Examples of scaffolding used the program are hints, explanations, and encouragement by the MKO and by fellow students through question and answer discussions. MKO interaction is gradually withdrawn as students collaborate among themselves.
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Social Constructivism Strategy:
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The course allows collaboration with classmates from satellite offices enrolled in the same program. Students are encouraged to engage in discussion to ask questions and learn from classmates through inquiry- and discovery-based sites provided through the section. Students collaborate to build a sample database using the cloud-based Azure SQL program. MKO support is gradually withdrawn as students collaborate to construct a sample database themselves.
References
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GSI Teaching & Resource Center Berkeley Graduate Division UC Berkeley. n.d. Social Constructivism. https://gsi.berkeley.edu/gsi-guide-contents/learning-theory-research/social-constructivism
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krist2366. (2015). Learner-centered design. https://www.learning-theories.com/learner-centered-design.html
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McLeod, S. A. (2018, August 05). Lev Vygotsky. https://www.simplypsychology.org/vygotsky.html
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McLeod, S. A. (2019). The zone of proximal development. https://www.simplypsychology.org/Zone-of-Proximal-Development.html
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McLeod, S. A. (2019, July 11). Bruner - learning theory in education. https://www.simplypsychology.org/bruner.html
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Open Educational Resources of UCD Teaching and Learning, University College Dublin. n.d. Constructivism and social
constructivism in the classroom.
cognitivism & connectivism
Cognitivism
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Cognitivism theory focuses on the processes of the mind as learning takes place. The theory maintains that learning is the reorganization of internal knowledge structures, or schema, of already-developed beliefs. Learners acquire new information which is altered to produce original thought processes of the mind such as attention, memory, and problem solving. Cognitivists acknowledge the influence of reinforcement and observation in behaviorism and the importance of individual knowledge-building and connections from constructivism but maintain that learning is more than an output or observable behavior. Cognitivism as applied to internet multimedia learning, are connected through technology and online networks.
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Cognitivist John Sweller developed the Cognitive Load Theory that adapts instruction to the learner's mental process. Working memory is limited and can become overloaded which reduces the amount of information retained in long-term memory. Multimedia instruction should be designed around the chunking of information. Content should be presented as components or elements that are large enough for meaning and application but small enough to focus on concepts without too much detail to overwhelm the learner. Sweller refers to this as Extraneous Load; by reducing extraneous information and redundancy, retention can increase.
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Similar to Sweller’s cognitive load theory, cognitivist Richard Mayer agrees that the way information is presented can reduce cognitive load and increase learning but sees internal visual and audio channels as built-in difficulties for learning that cannot be controlled. Mayer calls this Intrinsic Load Theory. Mayer presents five load-reducing principles that are developed for multimedia presentations but can also be applied to print materials. These are: Coherence; Signaling; Redundancy; Spatial Contiguity; Temporal Contiguity; and Cognitive Load Theory.
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Connectivism​
Connectivism is not a learning theory, it is a theory that says knowledge is structured like a network. Learning is the means of building a network, however, how building happens or what makes it more or less likely to occur is not addressed. Connectivism maintains that learning is connected through the Internet and multimedia technologies. Connectivism is used in both Sweller’s and Mayer’s theories. Connectivism applies to cognitivism in utilizing internet multimedia learning that is connected through technology and online networks.
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Social Cognitive Theory
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Like constructivism, Social Cognitivism focuses on how social connections and collaboration impact learning. Albert Bandura developed social cognitivism theory and the concept of Self-Efficacy, a bridge between learning theory and theories of behavioral change used in behaviorist psychology. Like behaviorism, Bandura maintains that learning is derived from observable behavior and imitation, or agency. As in constructivist theory, the learner is an active participant in her own learning. Bandura sees self-efficacy as a learner’s belief in her own capability as a precondition to learning. The learner has a sense of mastery in the learning process and is actively monitoring and adjusting behavior based on outcomes.
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Constructivist Learning Theory
Jerome Bruner, the well-known constructivist who influenced cognitive learning used the term scaffolding in his writings and described it as the assistance provided by others to help a child develop skills. Bruner believed that the ability to absorb, process, and respond to information was important for children in learning to create, invent, and make predictions.
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References
David L, "Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (Mayer)," in Learning Theories, March 5, 2020,
https://www.learning-theories.com/cognitive-theory-of-multimedia-learning-mayer.html
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David L, "Social Learning Theory (Bandura)," in Learning Theories, February 7, 2019
https://www.learning-theories.com/social-learning-theory-bandura.html
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David L, "E-Learning Theory (Mayer, Sweller, Moreno)," in Learning Theories, December 15, 2015,
https://www.learning-theories.com/e-learning-theory-mayer-sweller-moreno.html
European Distance and E-Learning Network. Available from: EDEN Secretariat, c/o Budapest University of
Technology and Economics, Egry Jozsef u 1, H-1111, Hungary. Tel: +36-1-463-1628; Fax: +36-1-463-1858; e-mail: secretariat@eurodl.org; Web site: http://www.eurodl.org
Kop, Rita & Adrian Hill, (2008, October). Connectivism: Learning theory of the future or vestige of
the past? International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 9(3). http://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/view/9.3.4/1103
krist2366, "Connectivism (Siemens, Downes)," in Learning Theories, June 1, 2015,
https://www.learning-theories.com/connectivism-siemens-downes.html
Siemens, George, (2005, January) Connectivism: A Learning Theory for the Digital Age.
Andragogy
First developed by Alexander Kapp in 1883, the term Andragogy was popularized by Malcom Knowles in 1980 as an adult learning model. Although andragogy is not considered a learning theory, it has become synonymous with adult education (Finlay, 2010). Knowles characterized andragogy as a model for good teaching that facilitates the process for adults to acquire knowledge and skills. Knowles developed four principles of andragogy based on five assumptions of the characteristics of adult learners, which differ from those made of pedagogy, or child learning (Pappas, 2017).
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The 5 Assumptions of Adult Learners:
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Knowles originally made four assumptions of the characteristics of adult learners. In 1984, the fifth was added. They are:
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1. Self-Concept
As a person matures his or her self-concept moves from one of being a dependent personality toward one of being a self-directed human being.
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2. Adult Learner Experience
As a person matures, he or she accumulates a growing reservoir of experience that becomes an increasing resource for learning.
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3. Readiness to Learn
As a person matures his or her readiness to learn becomes oriented increasingly to the developmental tasks of his or her social roles.
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4. Orientation to Learning
As a person matures his or her time perspective changes from one of postponed application of knowledge to immediacy of application. As a result, his or her orientation toward learning shifts from one of subject- centeredness to one of problem centeredness.
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5. Motivation to Learn
As a person matures the motivation to learn is internal (Pappas, 2017).
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The 4 Principles of Andragogy:
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Knowles suggested 4 principles to apply to adult learning. They are:
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Adults need to be involved in the planning and evaluation of their instruction.
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Experience (including mistakes) provides the basis for the learning activities.
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Adults are most interested in learning subjects that have immediate relevance and impact to their job or personal life.
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Adult learning is problem-centered rather than content-oriented (Pappas, 2017)
References
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Elearninginfotgraphics.com.(2014, April 2). The Adult Learning Theory – Andragogy – Infographic.
https://elearninginfographics.com/adult-learning-theory-andragogy-infographic
Finlay, Janet. (2010, May 17). Andragogy (Adult Learning) [Video]. YouTube.
National Institute for Staff and Organizational Development (NISOD). (2007, February 9). 30 THINGS WE
KNOW FOR SURE ABOUT ADULT LEARNING. NISOD Innovation Abstracts. XXIX(4).
http://www.muskegoncc.edu/Include/CTL%20DOCS/XXIX_No4.pdf
Pappas, Christopher. (2027, July 20). The Adult Learning Theory – Andragogy – of Malcom Knowles.
https://elearningindustry.com/the-adult-learning-theory-andragogy-of-malcolm-knowles